A Research Framework for the Archaeology of Wales
Northwest Wales – Early Medieval
22/12/2003
Introduction
The period c AD 400-1075 in NW Wales, spanning the
centuries between the end of Roman rule and the first Norman intervention, is
still poorly understood. The documentary evidence is notoriously sparse and
frequently difficult to interpret: yet it continues to provide a basic
chronological framework. It suggests the possibility of Irish settlement in the
NW and the movement of Cunedda and his followers from Manaw Gododdin around the
end of the Roman period. It indicates the establishment of the important
kingdom of Gwynedd by the early 6th century and its gradual rise at the expense
of probable minor kingdoms such as Rhos and Meirionydd. It is also possible to
chart to some extent Anglo-Saxon alliances and hostilities and from the 9th
century onwards Viking raids and likely settlement. At the same time the
documentary evidence can throw light on the development of Christianity by
helping to identify major ecclesiastical sites. In the past the documentary
evidence has tended to set many of the archaeological agendas. For the future
it is the purpose of this paper to set an archaeological research agenda.
However it is essential that the crucial role of cross-disciplinary research
for this period is also recognised.
A. Settlement
In 1934 the hut group at Pant-y-Saer (Ang.) was heralded as
the first possible early medieval settlement in Wales because of the excavation
of a penannular brooch. This was followed in the late 1950s and 1960s by minor
excavation of the hillforts at Dinas Emrys and Degannwy, the early medieval
phases of which were recognised by the presence of imported pottery. Over the
last 25 years or so evidence of early medieval activity has come to light by
chance on a few hut-group sites such as Graeanog and Cefn Cwmwd. The most spectacular
discovery has been the Viking Age and earlier settlement at Y Glŷn,
Llanbedrgoch. The recent research on Llys and Maerdref sites may
also be of significance for the early medieval period.
Strengths
1. Strengths in our
understanding of the settlement of this period are extremely difficult to
identify since so few early medieval sites have been recognised.
2. The discovery
and partial excavation of the productive site at Y Glŷn, Llanbedrgoch might be considered as
a strength since it is the only site of this kind to have been recognised in
Wales and one of the very few rural Viking settlement sites to have been
recognised outside Scotland. The fact that there is earlier high status
occupation on the same site is also significant.
Weaknesses
1. Although hillforts are
clearly a characteristic high status settlement type in the 5th-7th centuries
and possibly later as evidenced by the discoveries at Dinas Emrys and Degannwy,
it is still impossible to recognise other hill-fort sites in NW Wales of this
date and to differentiate them from defended hilltop sites of other dates.
2. The fact that
the productive
site at Y Glŷn, which is located on good arable land and was initially
located by metal detecting, is unique is a problem. It is likely that other
such sites exist which have not been recognised perhaps partly due to the
paucity of ploughed land in NW Wales.
3. Although the
excavation of hut
group sites has repeatedly hinted at early medieval activity on some of
them through the discovery of occasional artefacts and scientific dates, the
nature, extent and chronology of such activity has so far proved very difficult
to define. The recognition of clearly early medieval structures rather than the
continued use or reuse and modification of Roman period ones also remains a
problem.
4. Our inability to
recognise characteristic timber structures is a serious weakness since it is likely that wooden
buildings, both timber halls as suggested by Y Glŷn and wattle huts as
hinted at by Gerald of Wales, would have been comparatively common.
5. The lack of diagnostic early
medieval artefacts, especially native ceramics, makes identification of sites
more difficult, especially those of low status.
Opportunities
1. The main aim over the next decade should be arrive at a point
where we are able to recognise a range of characteristic early medieval
settlement types of both high and low status, have some idea of their
chronology and changes in settlement types over time and some awareness of
potential regional differences.
2. The significance
of early medieval hillfort
settlements in NW Wales needs to be re-evaluated. First, we need a
better understanding of sites of definite early medieval date, their
structures, artefacts, potential environmental and dating evidence. There has
been no major investigation of an early medieval hillfort in NW Wales to match,
for example, Dinas Powys (Glam) or Dunadd (Argyll). A major research project on
the probable multi-period site at Degannwy incorporating aerial photography,
geophysical survey including the ‘saddle’, targeted excavation and the setting
of the site within the context of the surrounding landscape and its resources
would go some way to answering this. Second, we need to target other hillfort
sites to see whether early medieval examples can be identified by their
typology or through other means. This should be achieved through aerial and
geophysical reconnaissance followed up by strategic excavation to obtain dating
evidence.
3. In order to gain
more understanding of high-status settlement at the end of the period more investigation of the
origins of llys and maerdref sites is
essential. Further targeted excavation at Rhosyr, for example, in order to
uncover any earlier timber (?) phases and determine their dating would be of
great value.
4. Further targeted
investigation of hut
groups would have the potential to enable the discovery of
well-preserved examples with early medieval dating evidence. The widely held
view that there is a change from round to rectangular structures during the
early middle ages also needs to be tested.
6. Ongoing place-name research
may have the potential to help identify early medieval sites.
Threats
1. Most of the
early medieval population would have lived on the more fertile lowlands of NW
Wales, notably Anglesey, the Llŷn and Dyffryn Conwy. These are also the
areas of the most intensive modern settlement and farming with threats such as
deep ploughing and the potential destruction of fragile archaeological
evidence.
2. Y Glŷn was
discovered through the responsible reporting of metal detector finds. No other
productive sites of this kind have been reported by metal detectorists but this
does not mean that they do not exist. The maintenance of the metal detector
finds reporting programme is therefore essential.
B. The economy, land use and the exploitation
of natural resources
It is generally agreed that there was a mixed farming
economy in the NW as elsewhere in Wales during the early middle ages and that
the best use of pasture was probably facilitated by transhumance. However, in
contrast with S Wales, there is no evidence concerning landed estates in the
documentary record. The farming economy must have been sufficiently developed
to have produced some excess in order to support the life-styles evidenced on
the few high-status sites that have been recognised. In the 5th to 7th
centuries there is evidence of long distance trade in the form of imported
pottery and potentially glass. In the Viking period there are silver hoards
with exotic items but the economy seems to have been insufficiently developed
to promote the establishment of either emporia or towns. In addition
other natural resources must have been exploited including woodland, wetland,
marine and mineral (iron, copper, gold?).
Strengths
1. The
environmental assemblage, including the extensive animal bone collection, from Y Glŷn, Llanbedrgoch is of
immense potential for understanding the economy and the range of activities on
the site.
Weaknesses
1. Apart from the
potential of Y Glŷn, it is impossible to identify any real strengths in
our understanding of the economy, land use and the exploitation of resources;
we currently know almost nothing, in part because of the difficulty of
recognising settlement types.
Opportunities
1. A programme of pollen cores throughout
Wales would reveal major changes in vegetation over time, including the early
medieval period. This has been very productive in Ireland where pollen cores
are beginning to indicate regional differences in the early medieval period. In
NW Wales it would be particularly interesting to examine whether there is a decline
in agriculture in the post-Roman period and to what extent there is an increase
in agricultural activity as the climate improves towards the end of the period.
2. If early
medieval settlement sites can be identified, a study of the landscape in which
they are located should illuminate the exploitation of resources.
4. The exploitation
of mineral
resources in NW Wales has up to now focussed on the prehistoric and
Roman period exploitation of copper and iron and widespread exploitation from
the Industrial Revolution onwards. There are hints of early medieval copper
exploitation, for example early medieval radiocarbon dates from the Great Orme
copper mines, but there have received little attention. The potential for early
medieval exploitation needs to be properly recognised and more fully
investigated in the future.
Threats
C. Ecclesiastical and Burial Sites
The origins of Christianity in NW Wales lie in the Roman
period, though no evidence has so far been found. During the 5th and 6th
centuries the evidence of the inscribed stones suggests that Christianity
expanded, at least amongst the upper echelons of society, and during the 6th
century major monastic sites such as Bangor are likely to have been founded.
Around the 8th(?) century there may have been a gradual shift from burial in
kin cemeteries to burial associated with ecclesiastical sites which eventually
became parish churches and chapels of ease; in addition some early cemeteries
developed into local church sites. Some minor churches may have been connected
with landed estates. Over the last few years there have been major advances
enabling recognition and increased understanding of early medieval
ecclesiastical and burial sites in NW Wales. However, with the exception of
burial sites, very little archaeological excavation has taken place.
Strengths
1. The early
medieval inscribed
stones and stone sculpture provide a major source of evidence for the
development of Christianity in NW Wales, as well as for determining cultural
(Irish Sea, Continental, Viking) connections. The Christian hic iacit formula
predominates on the inscribed stones in this area and there is only one ogam
and Latin inscribed stone. However only 40% of the inscribed stones can be
associated with modern church sites. The majority appear to be associated with
isolated burials or undeveloped cemeteries. A considerable number of inscribed
stones are associated with prehistoric ritual and burial monuments or Roman
roads. There are fewer cross-carved stones in this area than in the SW but these
are mainly connected with church sites where they probably functioned as grave
markers; a small proportion may have been way markers or have indicated
boundaries or the ownership of land. The clusters of more ambitious 9th-11th
sculpture, mainly crosses, indicate the most important sites, such as Penmon,
most of which are also mentioned in the documentary sources.
2. A considerable
number of potential early medieval cemeteries, mainly undeveloped, have been
identified in NW Wales, especially Anglesey, because of the use of long cists.
Our knowledge of such burial sites has recently been reviewed by Gwynedd
Archaeological Trust for Cadw. Over the last 30 years there have also been
major excavations at Arfryn, Capel Eithin, Tŷ Mawr Holyhead and now Capel
Ffraid, Treadddur Bay, where skeletal material is being recovered. This rarely
survives in the acidic soils of NW Wales.
3. The recently
completed survey
of early medieval ecclesiastical sites in NW Wales by Gwynedd
Archaeological Trust for Cadw has, amongst other things, demonstrated the
nature of the resource and the types of evidence that may be used to identify
such sites. A hierarchy of sites can be detected ranging from major regional
churches, such as Clynnog Fawr and Tywyn, to hermitages, small local churches,
chapels and cemeteries.